Unit 3 International Financial Reporting Level 4 City College

Question 1

Preparation of income statement for Able Plc.

Workings

The income statement is prepared for the year ended 31^st December 2017 for the organisation.  It is being prepared with the help of financial reporting standards provided by IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standards) which provides an effective way to prepare financials in the best possible manner. The income statement is prepared for Able Plc and transactions are extracted from the trial balance from the books of accounts. Trial balance is a useful statement that is prepared from transactions imparted by journal entries and then ledger accounts are formulated quite effectually. It is effectively prepared by using information from trial balance with much ease. In relation to this, the statement of Profit and Loss is formulated in an effectual way.

Moreover, expenditures incurred and incomes earned are taken into account and thus, the income statement is prepared to show the highlights of expenses and gains made during the past financial year in the best possible way. It can be said that such a statement is required which provides clarity to organisation on whether it has incurred more expenditures in relation to the income garnered in the past year (Stent, Bradbury, and Hooks, 2017). Thus, income should be more than expenses so that the financial performance of organisation may be enhanced in a better way. It can be interpreted from the income statement of Able Plc which shows that the firm is not able to earn profits in the period. Loss has been incurred for the period amounting to -1000. 

In relation to this, revenue attained in the financial year was 195000 which can be further bifurcated into sales accomplished amounting to 205000, and return inwards have been deducted from the same to effectively get the amount of revenue which is equal to 195000. On the other hand, COGS amounts to 122000 which has been attained by applying the formula of calculating COGS. The formula is Beginning inventory + Purchases - Closing stock and thus, it can be referred to working notes that the figure arrived is 124000. From this, return outwards are deducted such as 1000, and further, carriage inwards are reduced amounting to 1000. Thus, the net amount is of COGS which comes to 122000.

On the other hand, by deducting sales revenue from the cost of sales, a gross profit of 73000 is attained which is good for Able Plc and it shows that organisation is able to initiate control upon expenses and as a result, gross income is positive implying earning capability of firm in an effective way. Moreover, operating expenditures such as Rent and Rates, salaries outstanding, and bad debts are allowed. Moreover, motor expenses, warehouse salaries, hire of vehicles, and finance costs are applied. On the other side, the loss incurred on a closed branch of organisation is applied amounting to 20000. Depreciation is provided on non-current assets at the rate of 10 % and so, a total of 3000 is deducted. Directors Salary amounting to 10000 and insurance expense of 1000 is also accounted for. By applying such operational expenditures, the total amount equals 74000. It clearly shows that expenses have exceeded income earned for the year and as a result, loss is incurred. Thus, it is required that Able Plc should effectively initiate control of expenses so that necessary ones can be reduced up to a high extent and net income can be garnered from the business operations in the best possible manner. Hence, profits will exceed expenditures in the future course of action.

Question 2

Critical evaluation of the statement of financial reporting

The financial reporting standards help accountants to effectively carry out proper statements of organisation's position in an effectual manner (Maradona and Chand, 2017). These standards are required to be followed so that accurate financial statements may be extracted easily. It can be said that accounting standards when effectively complied with the provisions of the professional body provide a true and fair view of the financial health of a firm quite effectually. There are various financials such as cash flow statements, balance sheets, statements of changes of equity, and income statements are prepared to highlight the performance of the firm in a particular year. This information is quite useful for external stakeholders like suppliers, investors, creditors, and other users that rely on financials and thus, they are able to make decisions in an effective manner.

In relation to this, the statement provided accounting for intangible assets in specific areas of capitalizing research and development costs. While addressing this statement, IAS 38 can be applied to classify intangible assets and accounting treatment can be easily made. The accounting professional body IAS (International Accounting Standards) 38 is dedicated to the regulation of the treatment of intangible assets in the best possible manner. This is required so that accounting can be applied effectually. The intangible assets are termed as those assets which cannot be physically touched. IAS para 8 states that these are identified as non-monetary assets having no physical substance. On the other hand, fixed assets such as machinery, furniture, and fixtures as well as related items can be touched physically. However, in the statement, research and development costs are provided which are reported as intangible assets as they are incurred on formulating any research, and as a result, they are regarded as intangible ones (Graham and et.al, 2017).

In relation to this, goodwill has been excluded by IAS 38 because it is non-identifiable and so, it is not included as per the standards. The main reason behind the exclusion of goodwill is that future economic benefits are realized from assets that are not capable of being identified and thus, the exclusion is required for effective accounting treatment of intangible assets. On the other hand, when intangible assets are identified, the next step is to recognize and measure them with much ease. In relation to this, the main objective of IAS 38 is that only those assets can be classified as intangible assets that meet the specific criteria imparted by the body. The standard also provides a way to recognize and measure the value of various intangible assets in the best possible way. The intangible assets are identifiable when it is separable and governed by IAS 38.12. It further clarifies assets being capable of being sold, transferred, and rented as well as exchanged which are useful in carrying out accounting treatment. Moreover, they are identifiable when any contractual rights arise on behalf of the entity.

Intangible assets can be effectively acquired by purchasing separately, as part of a combination of business, government grants, internal generation, and exchanging assets quite effectually (Kettunen, 2017). In relation to this, recognition is required to meet the criteria effectually. IAS 38.21 requires that organisation should recognize intangible assets be it is purchased or internally generated at cost only and applies to if it is probable that economic benefits will be realized in the future course of action. Moreover, these future benefits are attributable to assets and would flow toward the entity. Another is that asset cost can be measured quite reliably. This requirement is applied whether intangible assets are acquired externally or internally produced in the best possible manner. In relation to this, IAS 38 includes the provision of extra recognition for internally generated assets. Moreover, future economic benefits should be based on reasonable ground that benefits will flow towards organisation and thus, the firm will be benefited. The probable condition based on such benefits is considered as satisfied for those assets that are acquired internally or through a business combination.

On the other hand, if the said recognition criteria of a particular intangible asset are not met then IAS 38 has different opinions regarding the same (IAS 38 — Intangible Assets. 2018). It states that when criteria have not been met, expenses on a particular asset should be recognized as expenditures only when it is actually incurred by organisation. Furthermore, a business combination has a pre-assumption regarding an intangible asset. It is that the fair value of a particular asset can be acquired through business combination and as a result, it can be effectively measured on a reliable basis. As per IAS 38.35, if an asset whose expenditure incurred cannot be classified as per the meaning of intangible assets and recognition criteria, then the same should be treated as a part of the goodwill amount that is attributed to it based on its date of acquisition in the best possible manner. Reinstatement is also termed which means that IAS has prohibited organisation that subsequently indulges in reinstating an intangible asset usually at a future date implying an expenditure being charged to an expense on an original basis.

Research and development costs are initial expenses that are incurred by the company in initiating research of new things and that can be included in its product portfolio quite effectually. It can be said that these expenditures are accounted for so that organisation may be able to provide goods and services to the customers to earn profits with much ease. This enhances the overall satisfaction of customers quite effectually and thus, the income generated is helpful for the company to survive in the future course of action. Research is required so that new insights can be extracted and businesses may provide better quality of goods to consumers while beating rivals in the same industry (Davidson and et.al, 2015). Thus, organisation produces profits that help to attain future operational tasks and activities with much ease and as a result, recognition of such costs is necessarily required by the company to effectively comply with the standards of a professional body.

As per IAS 38.54, it is required that all costs incurred on research and development costs should be charged to expenses. This clearly shows that organisation is required to charge cost to expenses for initial recognition of the same quite easily. Furthermore, IAS 38.57 states that all the costs related to development are required to be capitalized when technical feasibility and commercial viability have been effectively established for the sale or use of an intangible asset. In simple words, the statement clarifies that businesses should state the use and provide clarity regarding the main intent to use such assets in an effective manner. Moreover, organisation should also state whether economic benefits will be realized in the future through the usage of such assets in the best possible way. Moreover, if the business cannot differentiate the research phase from the development one, then it should be treated as the expense of the research phase only.

In relation to this, research and development are recognized initially, then organization measures assets at cost less accumulated amortization. There are mainly two types of models that are applied to such assets after initially recognizing the same quite effectually. They are cost and revaluation model. The basic model usually applied by organisation is the cost model which means that intangible assets must be carried towards the cost less accumulated impairment losses and amortisation if any (Graham and et.al, 2017). On the other side, the revaluation model states that assets should be carried at revalued figures less accumulated amortisation and impairment losses only when the fair value may be assessed from the active market. Thus, it can be said that the firm is able to carry out research and development costs which are effectively capitalized and form the part of intangible assets of organisation.

Question 3

Critical evaluation of the statement based on IAS 2

Inventory is an integral part of the organisation as, without the same, production cannot be achieved by the company quite effectively. A manufacturing firm that has immense reliance on inventory is the main part of the firm as without having an adequate amount of stock in hand, customers' demand cannot be fulfilled. On the other hand, if inventory is purchased in more quantum, the firm has to incur additional expenditures for handling of stock and it should be ordered in an adequate quantity only. Moreover, if it is not ordered in an optimum manner and less is purchased, then the demand of the production department cannot be accomplished in a better way. Thus, it is required to purchase inventory in that way which will increase production and as a result, customers may be provided with quality goods (Borio, James, and Shin, 2014).

In relation to this, there is a standard provided by the IAS 2 which is purely dedicated to the inventory only. The main objective is to effectively make accounting treatment for shares. One of the problems in accounting for stocks is that the amount of expense is to be recognised as an asset and which are carried forward till revenues from the same have been recognised. The IAS 2 provides an evaluation of cost and recognition as an expense and includes a write-down of the net realizable amount quite easily. Moreover, a cost formula is provided as well which is utilized for assigning inventory's cost. The standard is applicable to the company when assets are held for sale in normal business operations entitled as finished items, assets held in the production process for selling purposes entitled as work-in-process, and raw materials consumed in manufacturing.           

On the other hand, IAS 2 prohibits certain types of inventories within above discussed scope (IAS 2 — Inventories. 2018). These are work-in-process from contracts in the field of construction which is governed by IAS 11. Financial instruments are not within the scope and are referred to IAS 39 standard relating to recognition and measurement so, it does not apply to IAS 2. Moreover, biological assets that are related to the accomplishment of agricultural activities and harvesting points are governed by IAS 41 dedicated to agriculture. On the other hand, measurement of inventory also does not apply when it is held by producers of items related to agriculture and mineral products to the extent and are measured at a net realizable amount which is according to the practices adopted by the company in the industrial sector. Hence, when such changes are made in realizable value of inventory, changes can be recognized in the profit and loss of a particular period. On the other side, measurement of stock cannot be applied when the same is held by brokers and dealers measuring stock at fair value deducted from sales cost. The profit and loss is affected when inventories are measured in such a way.

The main principle of IAS 2 is that inventories should be stated at lower of cost and net realizable value. In relation to this, Net Realisable Value (NRV) is termed as the net amount that a business expects to realize in normal operations by selling inventory. As per the stated standard of IAS 2, it is justified to state inventory at a lower cost and NRV so that valuation can be made in the best possible manner. The measurement of inventories is the cost of purchase, cost of conversion, and other costs are accounted for. The cost of purchase includes purchase price, import duties, and taxes as well. Moreover, it also includes transport, handling, and related expenditures which are in direct relation to and attributable to finished items, services, and materials that are acquired. Moreover, rebates and discounts are deducted and costs are determined.

The cost of conversion is directly related to units attained in the production process of the company and is direct labor. It includes properly allocating fixed and variable overheads incurred in the conversion of raw materials into finished items. Fixed overheads are those which are required to be incurred irrespective of units being produced by a company such as depreciation, maintaining the factory's equipment, etc. On the other side, variable overheads are directly related to production and they vary directly with production volume. Allocating fixed overheads to conversion cost is based on normal capacity. On the other hand, it is measured at net realizable value and thus, the cost of product is deducted in the best possible way. IAS 23 is related to borrowings cost which means that these costs can be included in the cost of inventories meeting the meaning of the qualifying asset. Other than that, there are various costs that do not classify as inventory costs and should not be included.

Other costs are taken to the cost of inventories to the extent incurred on bringing stocks to adequate locations. Examples of not being included in the cost of inventory are costs related to an abnormal amount of materials wasted and labor costs. Storage expenses are also not accounted for. Administrative costs of overheads are also not included in the cost of inventories as these do not make any contribution to bringing stocks to the present location and further, selling costs are also not taken into account (Vishny and Zingales, 2017). Another cost that should be excluded from the cost of inventory is differences in foreign exchange which arise from the acquisition of stocks made in foreign currency quite effectually. Interest costs are also there when inventory is purchased by having terms of deferred settlement.

The standard cost and methods should be applied so measurement of inventory can be made in an effective way. Moreover, stock items cannot be changed, and specific costs are attributable to particular items of stock in an effective way. On the other hand, when items are classified as changeable, IAS 2 guides to use FIFO (First in First Out) method and related weighted average formulas to carry out the cost of inventories quite easily. In relation to this, the LIFO (Last in Last Out) method is not allowed as per the revised standard of IAS 2. The same formula should be applied by the company and have the same nature. Thus, the cost of inventory can be calculated with much ease (Avdjiev, McCauley, and Shin, 2016).

If inventories are of a varied nature, then different formulas should be used to compute inventory costs. On the other hand, expense recognition is also relevant to IAS 18 which states that revenue is produced from the sale of stocks. This is the reason when stock is sold-off and from the same, revenue is recognized. As a result, the carrying amount realised from inventories is termed as the Cost of Goods Sold which is an expenditure. Thus, write-down to net realizable value and losses to stocks are required to recognised as expenditure only when actually occur. Thus, it is justified that the company should value inventory cost which is lower cost, and net realisable value only for correct valuation.

Conclusion

Hereby, it can be concluded that organisation is required to follow international reporting standards that produce true and fair financial statements of the firm. This is essentially required so that accounting rules and standards should be followed so that the company may produce effective information in the form of financials. These are required in order to impart sufficient information to the external users by which they are able to make well-structured decisions. Hence, such standards produce quality information regarding the financial performance of the firm.

References

• Avdjiev, S., McCauley, R. N. and Shin, H.S., 2016. Breaking free of the triple coincidence in international finance. Economic Policy. 31(87). pp.409-451.
• Borio, C. E., James, H. and Shin, H. S., 2014. The international monetary and financial system: a capital account historical perspective.
• Davidson, G., and et.al., 2015. Supported decision making: a review of the international literature. International journal of law and psychiatry. 38. pp.61-67.
• Graham, A. and et.al, 2017. Macroeconomic Determinants of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) Adoption: Evidence from the Middle East North Africa (MENA) Region.
• Graham, J. R. and et.al., 2017. Tax rates and corporate decision-making. The Review of Financial Studies. 30(9). pp.3128-3175.
• Kettunen, J., 2017. Interlingual translation of the International Financial Reporting Standards as institutional work. Accounting, Organizations, and Society. 56. pp.38-54.
• Maradona, A.F. and Chand, P., 2017. The Pathway of Transition to International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) in Developing Countries: Evidence from Indonesia. Journal of International Accounting, Auditing and Taxation.
• Stent, W., Bradbury, M.E. and Hooks, J., 2017. Insights into accounting choice from the adoption timing of International Financial Reporting Standards. Accounting & Finance. 57(S1), pp.255-276.
• Vishny, R. and Zingales, L., 2017. Corporate Finance. Journal of Political Economy. 125(6). pp.1805-1812.

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